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Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences / Discours de la mĂ©thode pour bien conduire sa raison, et chercher la veritĂ© dans les sciences — ĐœĐ° Đ°ĐœĐłĐ»Ń–ĐčсĐșаĐč і Ń„Ń€Đ°ĐœŃ†ŃƒĐ·ŃĐșаĐč ĐŒĐŸĐČах. ĐĄŃ‚Đ°Ń€ĐŸĐœĐșа 3

ĐĐœĐłĐ»Ń–ĐčсĐșа-Ń„Ń€Đ°ĐœŃ†ŃƒĐ·ŃĐșая ĐșĐœŃ–ĐłĐ°-Đ±Ń–Đ»Ń–ĐœĐłĐČа

René Descartes

Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences

René Descartes

Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire sa raison, et chercher la verité dans les sciences

But like the painters who, finding themselves unable to represent equally well on a plain surface all the different faces of a solid body, select one of the chief, on which alone they make the light fall, and throwing the rest into the shade, allow them to appear only in so far as they can be seen while looking at the principal one; so, fearing lest I should not be able to comprise in my discourse all that was in my mind, I resolved to expound singly, though at considerable length, my opinions regarding light; then to take the opportunity of adding something on the sun and the fixed stars, since light almost wholly proceeds from them; on the heavens since they transmit it; on the planets, comets, and earth, since they reflect it; and particularly on all the bodies that are upon the earth, since they are either coloured, or transparent, or luminous; and finally on man, since he is the spectator of these objects.

Mais, tout de mĂȘme que les peintres, ne pouvant Ă©galement bien reprĂ©senter dans un tableau plat toutes les diverses faces d’un corps solide, en choisissent une des principales, qu’ils mettent seule vers le jour, et, ombrageant les autres, ne les font paroĂźtre qu’autant qu’on les peut voir en la regardant ; ainsi, craignant de ne pouvoir mettre en mon discours tout ce que j’avois en la pensĂ©e, j’entrepris seulement d’y exposer bien amplement ce que je concevois de la lumiĂšre ; puis, Ă  son occasion, d’y ajouter quelque chose du soleil et des Ă©toiles fixes, Ă  cause qu’elle en procĂšde presque toute ; des cieux, Ă  cause qu’ils la transmettent ; des planĂštes, des comĂštes et de la terre, Ă  cause qu’elles la font rĂ©flĂ©chir ; et en particulier de tous les corps qui sont sur la terre, Ă  cause qu’ils sont ou colorĂ©s, ou transparents, ou lumineux ; et enfin de l’homme, Ă  cause qu’il en est le spectateur.

Further, to enable me to cast this variety of subjects somewhat into the shade, and to express my judgment regarding them with greater freedom, without being necessitated to adopt or refute the opinions of the learned, I resolved to leave all the people here to their disputes, and to speak only of what would happen in a new world, if God were now to create somewhere in the imaginary spaces matter sufficient to compose one, and were to agitate variously and confusedly the different parts of this matter, so that there resulted a chaos as disordered as the poets ever feigned, and after that did nothing more than lend his ordinary concurrence to nature, and allow her to act in accordance with the laws which he had established.

MĂȘme, pour ombrager un peu toutes ces choses, et pouvoir dire plus librement ce que j’en jugeois, sans ĂȘtre obligĂ© de suivre ni de rĂ©futer les opinions qui sont reçues entre les doctes, je me rĂ©solus de laisser tout ce monde ici Ă  leurs disputes, et de parler seulement de ce qui arriveroit dans un nouveau, si Dieu crĂ©oit maintenant quelque part, dans les espaces imaginaires, assez de matiĂšre pour le composer, et qu’il agitĂąt diversement et sans ordre les diverses parties de cette matiĂšre, en sorte qu’il en composĂąt un chaos aussi confus que les poĂ«tes en puisse feindre, et que par aprĂšs il ne fĂźt autre chose que prĂȘter son concours ordinaire Ă  la nature, et la laisser agir suivant les lois qu’il a Ă©tablies.

On this supposition, I, in the first place, described this matter, and essayed to represent it in such a manner that to my mind there can be nothing clearer and more intelligible, except what has been recently said regarding God and the soul;

Ainsi, premiĂšrement, je dĂ©crivis cette matiĂšre, et tĂąchai de la reprĂ©senter telle qu’il n’y a rien au monde, ce me semble, de plus clair ni plus intelligible, exceptĂ© ce qui a tantĂŽt Ă©tĂ© dit de Dieu et de l’ñme ;

for I even expressly supposed that it possessed none of those forms or qualities which are so debated in the Schools, nor in general anything the knowledge of which is not so natural to our minds that no one can so much as imagine himself ignorant of it.

car mĂȘme je supposai expressĂ©ment qu’il n’y avoit en elle aucune de ces formes ou qualitĂ©s dont on dispute dans les Ă©coles, ni gĂ©nĂ©ralement aucune chose dont la connoissance ne fĂ»t si naturelle Ă  nos Ăąmes qu’on ne pĂ»t pas mĂȘme feindre de l’ignorer.

Besides, I have pointed out what are the laws of nature; and, with no other principle upon which to found my reasonings except the infinite perfection of God, I endeavoured to demonstrate all those about which there could be any room for doubt, and to prove that they are such, that even if God had created more worlds, there could have been none in which these laws were not observed.

De plus, je fis voir quelles Ă©toient les lois de la nature ; et, sans appuyer mes raisons sur aucun autre principe que sur les perfections infinies de Dieu, je tĂąchai Ă  dĂ©montrer toutes celles dont on eĂ»t pu avoir quelque doute, et Ă  faire voir qu’elles sont telles qu’encore que Dieu auroit créé plusieurs mondes, il n’y en sauroit avoir aucun oĂč elles manquassent d’ĂȘtre observĂ©es.

Thereafter, I showed how the greatest part of the matter of this chaos must, in accordance with these laws, dispose and arrange itself in such a way as to present the appearance of heavens; how in the meantime some of its parts must compose an earth and some planets and comets, and others a sun and fixed stars.

AprĂšs cela, je montrai comment la plus grande part de la matiĂšre de ce chaos devoit, en suite de ces lois, se disposer et s’arranger d’une certaine façon qui la rendoit semblable Ă  nos cieux ; comment cependant quelques unes de ses parties devoient composer une terre et quelques unes des planĂštes et des comĂštes, et quelques autres un soleil et des Ă©toiles fixes.

And, making a digression at this stage on the subject of light, I expounded at considerable length what the nature of that light must be which is found in the sun and the stars, and how thence in an instant of time it traverses the immense spaces of the heavens, and how from the planets and comets it is reflected towards the earth.

Et ici, m’étendant sur le sujet de la lumiĂšre, j’expliquai bien au long quelle Ă©toit celle qui se devoit trouver dans le soleil et les Ă©toiles, et comment de lĂ  elle traversoit en un instant les immenses espaces des cieux, et comment elle se rĂ©flĂ©chissoit des planĂštes et des comĂštes vers la terre.

To this I likewise added much respecting the substance, the situation, the motions, and all the different qualities of these heavens and stars; so that I thought I had said enough respecting them to show that there is nothing observable in the heavens or stars of our system that must not, or at least may not appear precisely alike in those of the system which I described.

J’y ajoutai aussi plusieurs choses touchant la substance, la situation, les mouvements, et toutes les diverses qualitĂ©s de ces cieux et de ces astres ; en sorte que je pensois en dire assez pour faire connoĂźtre qu’il ne se remarque rien en ceux de ce monde qui ne dĂ»t ou du moins qui ne pĂ»t paroĂźtre tout semblable en ceux du monde que je dĂ©crivois.

I came next to speak of the earth in particular, and to show how, even though I had expressly supposed that God had given no weight to the matter of which it is composed, this should not prevent all its parts from tending exactly to its centre;

De lĂ  je vins Ă  parler particuliĂšrement de la terre : comment, encore que j’eusse expressĂ©ment supposĂ© que Dieu n’avoit mis aucune pesanteur en la matiĂšre dont elle Ă©toit composĂ©e, toutes ses parties ne laissoient pas de tendre exactement vers son centre ;

how with water and air on its surface, the disposition of the heavens and heavenly bodies, more especially of the moon, must cause a flow and ebb, like in all its circumstances to that observed in our seas, as also a certain current both of water and air from east to west, such as is likewise observed between the tropics;

comment, y ayant de l’eau et de l’air sur sa superficie, la disposition des cieux et des astres, principalement de la lune, y devoit causer un flux et reflux qui fĂ»t semblable en toutes ses circonstances Ă  celui qui se remarque dans nos mers, et outre cela un certain cours tant de l’eau que de l’air, du levant vers le couchant, tel qu’on le remarque aussi entre les tropiques ;

how the mountains, seas, fountains, and rivers might naturally be formed in it, and the metals produced in the mines, and the plants grow in the fields; and in general, how all the bodies which are commonly denominated mixed or composite might be generated:

comment les montagnes, les mers, les fontaines et les riviĂšres pouvoient naturellement s’y former, et les mĂ©taux y venir dans les mines, et les plantes y croĂźtre dans les campagnes, et gĂ©nĂ©ralement tous les corps qu’on nomme mĂȘlĂ©s ou composĂ©s s’y engendrer :

and, among other things in the discoveries alluded to, inasmuch as besides the stars, I knew nothing except fire which produces light, I spared no pains to set forth all that pertains to its nature,—the manner of its production and support, and to explain how heat is sometimes found without light, and light without heat;

et, entre autres choses, Ă  cause qu’aprĂšs les astres je ne connois rien au monde que le feu qui produise de la lumiĂšre, je m’étudiai Ă  faire entendre bien clairement tout ce qui appartient Ă  sa nature, comment il se fait, comment il se nourrit, comment il n’a quelquefois que de la chaleur sans lumiĂšre, et quelquefois que de la lumiĂšre sans chaleur ;

to show how it can induce various colours upon different bodies and other diverse qualities; how it reduces some to a liquid state and hardens others; how it can consume almost all bodies, or convert them into ashes and smoke; and finally, how from these ashes, by the mere intensity of its action, it forms glass:

comment il peut introduire diverses couleurs en divers corps, et diverses autres qualitĂ©s ; comment il en fond quelques uns et en durcit d’autres ; comment il les peut consumer presque tous ou convertir en cendres et en fumĂ©e ; et enfin comment de ces cendres, par la seule violence de son action, il forme du verre ;

for as this transmutation of ashes into glass appeared to me as wonderful as any other in nature, I took a special pleasure in describing it.

car cette transmutation de cendres en verre me semblant ĂȘtre aussi admirable qu’aucune autre qui se fasse en la nature, je pris particuliĂšrement plaisir Ă  la dĂ©crire.

I was not, however, disposed, from these circumstances, to conclude that this world had been created in the manner I described; for it is much more likely that God made it at the first such as it was to be.

Toutefois je ne voulois pas infĂ©rer de toutes ces choses que ce monde ait Ă©tĂ© créé en la façon que je proposois ; car il est bien plus vraisemblable que dĂšs le commencement Dieu l’a rendu tel qu’il devoit ĂȘtre.

But this is certain, and an opinion commonly received among theologians, that the action by which he now sustains it is the same with that by which he originally created it; so that even although he had from the beginning given it no other form than that of chaos, provided only he had established certain laws of nature, and had lent it his concurrence to enable it to act as it is wont to do, it may be believed, without discredit to the miracle of creation, that, in this way alone, things purely material might, in course of time, have become such as we observe them at present;

Mais il est certain, et c’est une opinion communĂ©ment reçue entre les thĂ©ologiens, que l’action par laquelle maintenant il le conserve, est toute la mĂȘme que celle par laquelle il l’a créé ; de façon qu’encore qu’il ne lui auroit point donnĂ© au commencement d’autre forme que celle du chaos, pourvu qu’ayant Ă©tabli les lois de la nature, il lui prĂȘtĂąt son concours pour agir ainsi qu’elle a de coutume, on peut croire, sans faire tort au miracle de la crĂ©ation, que par cela seul toutes les choses qui sont purement matĂ©rielles auroient pu avec le temps s’y rendre telles que nous les voyons Ă  prĂ©sent ;

and their nature is much more easily conceived when they are beheld coming in this manner gradually into existence, than when they are only considered as produced at once in a finished and perfect state.

et leur nature est bien plus aisĂ©e Ă  concevoir, lorsqu’on les voit naĂźtre peu Ă  peu en cette sorte, que lorsqu’on ne les considĂšre que toutes faites.

From the description of inanimate bodies and plants, I passed to animals, and particularly to man.

De la description des corps inanimés et des plantes, je passai à celle des animaux, et particuliÚrement à celle des hommes.

But since I had not as yet sufficient knowledge to enable me to treat of these in the same manner as of the rest, that is to say, by deducing effects from their causes, and by showing from what elements and in what manner Nature must produce them, I remained satisfied with the supposition that God formed the body of man wholly like to one of ours, as well in the external shape of the members as in the internal conformation of the organs, of the same matter with that I had described, and at first placed in it no Rational Soul, nor any other principle, in room of the Vegetative or Sensitive Soul, beyond kindling in the heart one of those fires without light, such as I had already described, and which I thought was not different from the heat in hay that has been heaped together before it is dry, or that which causes fermentation in new wines before they are run clear of the fruit.

Mais pourceque je n’en avois pas encore assez de connoissance pour en parler du mĂȘme style que du reste, c’est-Ă -dire en dĂ©montrant les effets par les causes, et faisant voir de quelles semences et en quelle façon la nature les doit produire, je me contentai de supposer que Dieu formĂąt le corps d’un homme entiĂšrement semblable Ă  l’un des nĂŽtres, tant en la figure extĂ©rieure de ses membres, qu’en la conformation intĂ©rieure de ses organes, sans le composer d’autre matiĂšre que de celle que j’avois dĂ©crite, et sans mettre en lui au commencement aucune Ăąme raisonnable, ni aucune autre chose pour y servir d’ñme vĂ©gĂ©tante ou sensitive, sinon qu’il excitĂąt en son cƓur un de ces feux sans lumiĂšre que j’avois dĂ©jĂ  expliquĂ©s, et que je ne concevois point d’autre nature que celui qui Ă©chauffe le foin lorsqu’on l’a renfermĂ© avant qu’il fĂ»t sec, ou qui fait bouillir les vins nouveaux lorsqu’on les laisse cuver sur la rĂąpe :

For, when I examined the kind of functions which might, as consequences of this supposition, exist in this body, I found precisely all those which may exist in us independently of all power of thinking, and consequently without being in any measure owing to the soul; in other words, to that part of us which is distinct from the body, and of which it has been said above that the nature distinctively consists in thinking,—functions in which the animals void of Reason may be said wholly to resemble us;

car, examinant les fonctions qui pouvoient en suite de cela ĂȘtre en ce corps, j’y trouvois exactement toutes celles qui peuvent ĂȘtre en nous sans que nous y pensions, ni par consĂ©quent que notre Ăąme, c’est-Ă -dire cette partie distincte du corps dont il a Ă©tĂ© dit ci-dessus que la nature n’est que de penser, y contribue, et qui sont toutes les mĂȘmes en quoi on peut dire que les animaux sans raison nous ressemblent ;

but among which I could not discover any of those that, as dependent on thought alone, belong to us as men, while, on the other hand, I did afterwards discover these as soon as I supposed God to have created a Rational Soul, and to have annexed it to this body in a particular manner which I described.

sans que j’y en pusse pour cela trouver aucune de celles qui, Ă©tant dĂ©pendantes de la pensĂ©e, sont les seules qui nous appartiennent, en tant qu’hommes ; au lieu que je les y trouvois toutes par aprĂšs, ayant supposĂ© que Dieu créùt une Ăąme raisonnable, et qu’il la joignĂźt Ă  ce corps en certaine façon que je dĂ©crivois.

But, in order to show how I there handled this matter, I mean here to give the explication of the motion of the heart and arteries, which, as the first and most general motion observed in animals, will afford the means of readily determining what should be thought of all the rest.

Mais afin qu’on puisse voir en quelle sorte j’y traitais cette matiĂšre, je veux mettre ici l’explication du mouvement du cƓur et des artĂšres, qui Ă©tant le premier et le plus gĂ©nĂ©ral qu’on observe dans les animaux, on jugera facilement de lui ce qu’on doit penser de tous les autres.

And that there may be less difficulty in understanding what I am about to say on this subject, I advise those who are not versed in Anatomy, before they commence the perusal of these observations, to take the trouble of getting dissected in their presence the heart of some large animal possessed of lungs, (for this is throughout sufficiently like the human,) and to have shewn to them its two ventricles or cavities:

Et afin qu’on ait moins de difficultĂ© Ă  entendre ce que j’en dirai, je voudrois que ceux qui ne sont point versĂ©s en l’anatomie prissent la peine, avant que de lire ceci, de faire couper devant eux le cƓur de quelque grand animal qui ait des poumons, car il est en tous assez semblable Ă  celui de l’homme, et qu’ils se fissent montrer les deux chambres ou concavitĂ©s qui y sont :

in first place, that in the right side, with which correspond two very ample tubes, viz., the hollow vein, (vena cava,) which is the principal receptacle of the blood, and the trunk of the tree, as it were, of which all the other veins in the body are branches; and the arterial vein, (vena arteriosa,) inappropriately so denominated, since it is in truth only an artery, which, taking its rise in the heart, is divided, after passing out from it, into many branches which presently disperse themselves all over the lungs;

premiĂšrement celle qui est dans son cĂŽtĂ© droit, Ă  laquelle rĂ©pondent deux tuyaux fort larges ; Ă  savoir, la veine cave, qui est le principal rĂ©ceptacle du sang, et comme le tronc de l’arbre dont toutes les autres veines du corps sont les branches ; et la veine artĂ©rieuse, qui a Ă©tĂ© ainsi mal nommĂ©e, pourceque c’est en effet une artĂšre, laquelle, prenant son origine du cƓur, se divise, aprĂšs en ĂȘtre sortie, en plusieurs branches qui vont se rĂ©pandre partout dans les poumons :

in the second place, the cavity in the left side, with which correspond in the same manner two canals in size equal to or larger than the preceding, viz., the venous artery, (arteria venosa,) likewise inappropriately thus designated, because it is simply a vein which comes from the lungs, where it is divided into many branches, interlaced with those of the arterial vein, and those of the tube called the windpipe, through which the air we breathe enters; and the great artery which, issuing from the heart, sends its branches all over the body.

puis celle qui est dans son cĂŽtĂ© gauche, Ă  laquelle rĂ©pondent en mĂȘme façon deux tuyaux qui sont autant ou plus larges que les prĂ©cĂ©dents ; Ă  savoir, l’artĂšre veineuse, qui a Ă©tĂ© aussi mal nommĂ©e, Ă  cause qu’elle n’est autre chose qu’une veine, laquelle vient des poumons, oĂč elle est divisĂ©e en plusieurs branches entrelacĂ©es avec celles de la veine artĂ©rieuse, et celles de ce conduit qu’on nomme le sifflet, par oĂč entre l’air de la respiration ; et la grande artĂšre qui, sortant du cƓur, envoie ses branches partout le corps.

I should wish also that such persons were carefully shewn the eleven pellicles which, like so many small valves, open and shut the four orifices that are in these two cavities, viz., three at the entrance of the hollow vein, where they are disposed in such a manner as by no means to prevent the blood which it contains from flowing into the right ventricle of the heart, and yet exactly to prevent its flowing out; three at the entrance to the arterial vein, which, arranged in a manner exactly the opposite of the former, readily permit the blood contained in this cavity to pass into the lungs, but hinder that contained in the lungs from returning to this cavity;

Je voudrois aussi qu’on leur montrĂąt soigneusement les onze petites peaux qui, comme autant de petites portes, ouvrent et ferment les quatre ouvertures qui sont en ces deux concavitĂ©s ; Ă  savoir, trois Ă  l’entrĂ©e de la veine cave, oĂč elles sont tellement disposĂ©es qu’elles ne peuvent aucunement empĂȘcher que le sang qu’elle contient ne coule dans la concavitĂ© droite du cƓur, et toutefois empĂȘchent exactement qu’il n’en puisse sortir ; trois a l’entrĂ©e de la veine artĂ©rieuse, qui, Ă©tant disposĂ©es tout au contraire, permettent bien au sang qui est dans cette concavitĂ© de passer dans les poumons, mais non pas Ă  celui qui est dans les poumons d’y retourner ;

and, in like manner, two others at the mouth of the venous artery, which allow the blood from the lungs to flow into the left cavity of the heart, but preclude its return; and three at the mouth of the great artery, which suffer the blood to flow from the heart, but prevent its reflux.

et ainsi deux autres Ă  l’entrĂ©e de l’artĂšre veineuse, qui laissent couler le sang des poumons vers la concavitĂ© gauche du cƓur, mais s’opposent Ă  son retour ; et trois Ă  l’entrĂ©e de la grande artĂšre, qui lui permettent de sortir du cƓur, mais l’empĂȘchent d’y retourner :

Nor do we need to seek any other reason for the number of these pellicles beyond this that the orifice of the venous artery being of an oval shape from the nature of its situation, can be adequately closed with two, whereas the others being round are more conveniently closed with three.

et il n’est point besoin de chercher d’autre raison du nombre de ces peaux, sinon que l’ouverture de l’artĂšre veineuse Ă©tant en ovale, Ă  cause du lieu oĂč elle se rencontre, peut ĂȘtre commodĂ©ment fermĂ©e avec deux, au lieu que les autres Ă©tant rondes, le peuvent mieux ĂȘtre avec trois.

Besides, I wish such persons to observe that the grand artery and the arterial vein are of much harder and firmer texture than the venous artery and the hollow vein; and that the two last expand before entering the heart, and there form, as it were, two pouches denominated the auricles of the heart, which are composed of a substance similar to that of the heart itself;

De plus, je voudrois qu’on leur fĂźt considĂ©rer que la grande artĂšre et la veine artĂ©rieuse sont d’une composition beaucoup plus dure et plus ferme que ne sont l’artĂšre veineuse et la veine cave ; et que ces deux derniĂšres s’élargissent avant que d’entrer dans le cƓur, et y font comme deux bourses, nommĂ©es les oreilles du cƓur, qui sont composĂ©es d’une chair semblable Ă  la sienne ;

and that there is always more warmth in the heart than in any other part of the body; and, finally, that this heat is capable of causing any drop of blood that passes into the cavities rapidly to expand and dilate, just as all liquors do when allowed to fall drop by drop into a highly heated vessel.

et qu’il y a toujours plus de chaleur dans le cƓur qu’en aucun autre endroit du corps ; et enfin que cette chaleur est capable de faire que, s’il entre quelque goutte de sang en ses concavitĂ©s, elle s’enfle promptement et se dilate, ainsi que font gĂ©nĂ©ralement toutes les liqueurs, lorsqu’on les laisse tomber goutte Ă  goutte en quelque vaisseau qui est fort chaud.

For, after these things, it is not necessary for me to say anything more with a view to explain the motion of the heart, except that when its cavities are not full of blood, into these the blood of necessity flows,—from the hollow vein into the right, and from the venous artery into the left; because these two vessels are always full of blood, and their orifices, which are turned towards the heart, cannot then be closed.

Car, aprĂšs cela, je n’ai besoin de dire autre chose pour expliquer le mouvement du cƓur, sinon que lorsque ses concavitĂ©s ne sont pas pleines de sang, il y en coule nĂ©cessairement de la veine cave dans la droite et de l’artĂšre veineuse dans la gauche, d’autant que ces deux vaisseaux en sont toujours pleins, et que leurs ouvertures, qui regardent vers le cƓur, ne peuvent alors ĂȘtre bouchĂ©es ;

But as soon as two drops of blood have thus passed, one into each of the cavities, these drops which cannot but be very large, because the orifices through which they pass are wide, and the vessels from which they come full of blood, are immediately rarefied, and dilated by the heat they meet with.

mais que sitĂŽt qu’il est entrĂ© ainsi deux gouttes de sang, une en chacune de ses concavitĂ©s, ces gouttes, qui ne peuvent ĂȘtre que fort grosses, Ă  cause que les ouvertures par oĂč elles entrent sont fort larges et les vaisseaux d’oĂč elles viennent fort pleins de sang, se rarĂ©fient et se dilatent, Ă  cause de la chaleur qu’elles y trouvent ;

In this way they cause the whole heart to expand, and at the same time press home and shut the five small valves that are at the entrances of the two vessels from which they flow, and thus prevent any more blood from coming down into the heart,

au moyen de quoi, faisant enfler tout le cƓur, elles poussent et ferment les cinq petites portes qui sont aux entrĂ©es des deux vaisseaux d’oĂč elles viennent, empĂȘchant ainsi qu’il ne descende davantage de sang dans le cƓur ;

and becoming more and more rarefied, they push open the six small valves that are in the orifices of the other two vessels, through which they pass out, causing in this way all the branches of the arterial vein and of the grand artery to expand almost simultaneously with the heart—which immediately thereafter begins to contract, as do also the arteries, because the blood that has entered them has cooled,

et, continuant Ă  se rarĂ©fier de plus en plus, elles poussent et ouvrent les six autres petites portes qui sont aux entrĂ©es des deux autres vaisseaux par oĂč elles sortent, faisant enfler par ce moyen toutes les branches de la veine artĂ©rieuse et de la grande artĂšre, quasi au mĂȘme instant que le cƓur ; lequel incontinent aprĂšs se dĂ©senfle, comme font aussi ces artĂšres, Ă  cause que le sang qui y est entrĂ© s’y refroidit ;

and the six small valves close, and the five of the hollow vein and of the venous artery open anew and allow a passage to other two drops of blood, which cause the heart and the arteries again to expand as before.

et leurs six petites portes se referment, et les cinq de la veine cave et de l’artĂšre veineuse se rouvrent, et donnent passage Ă  deux autres gouttes de sang, qui font derechef enfler le cƓur et les artĂšres, tout de mĂȘme que les prĂ©cĂ©dentes.

And, because the blood which thus enters into the heart passes through these two pouches called auricles, it thence happens that their motion is the contrary of that of the heart, and that when it expands they contract.

Et pourceque le sang qui entre ainsi dans le cƓur passe par ces deux bourses qu’on nomme ses oreilles, de lĂ  vient que leur mouvement est contraire au sien, et qu’elles se dĂ©senflent lorsqu’il s’enfle.

But lest those who are ignorant of the force of mathematical demonstrations, and who are not accustomed to distinguish true reasons from mere verisimilitudes, should venture, without examination, to deny what has been said, I wish it to be considered that the motion which I have now explained follows as necessarily from the very arrangement of the parts, which may be observed in the heart by the eye alone, and from the heat which may be felt with the fingers, and from the nature of the blood as learned from experience, as does the motion of a clock from the power, the situation, and shape of its counterweights and wheels.

Au reste, afin que ceux qui ne connoissent pas la force des dĂ©monstrations mathĂ©matiques, et ne sont pas accoutumĂ©s Ă  distinguer les vraies raisons des vraisemblables, ne se hasardent pas de nier ceci sans l’examiner, je les veux avertir que ce mouvement que je viens d’expliquer suit aussi nĂ©cessairement de la seule disposition des organes qu’on peut voir Ă  l’Ɠil dans le cƓur, et de la chaleur qu’on y peut sentir avec les doigts, et de la nature du sang qu’on peut connoĂźtre par expĂ©rience, que fait celui d’un horloge, de la force, de la situation et de la figure de ses contre-poids et de ses roues.

But if it be asked how it happens that the blood in the veins, flowing in this way continually into the heart, is not exhausted, and why the arteries do not become too full, since all the blood which passes through the heart flows into them, I need only mention in reply what has been written by a physician* of England, who has the honour of having broken the ice on this subject, and of having been the first to teach that there are many small passages at the extremities of the arteries, through which the blood received by them from the heart passes into the small branches of the veins, whence it again returns to the heart; so that its course amounts precisely to a perpetual circulation.

Mais si on demande comment le sang des veines ne s’épuise point, en coulant ainsi continuellement dans le cƓur, et comment les artĂšres n’en sont point trop remplies, puisque tout celui qui passe par le cƓur s’y va rendre, je n’ai pas besoin d’y rĂ©pondre autre chose que ce qui a dĂ©jĂ  Ă©tĂ© Ă©crit par un mĂ©decin d’Angleterre*, auquel il faut donner la louange d’avoir rompu la glace en cet endroit, et d’ĂȘtre le premier qui a enseignĂ© qu’il y a plusieurs petits passages aux extrĂ©mitĂ©s des artĂšres, par oĂč le sang qu’elles reçoivent du cƓur entre dans les petites branches des veines, d’oĂč il va se rendre derechef vers le cƓur ; en sorte que son cours n’est autre chose qu’une circulation perpĂ©tuelle.

Of this we have abundant proof in the ordinary experience of surgeons, who, by binding the arm with a tie of moderate straitness above the part where they open the vein, cause the blood to flow more copiously than it would have done without any ligature; whereas quite the contrary would happen were they to bind it below; that is, between the hand and the opening, or were to make the ligature above the opening very tight.

Ce qu’il prouve fort bien par l’expĂ©rience ordinaire des chirurgiens, qui, ayant liĂ© le bras mĂ©diocrement fort, au-dessus de l’endroit oĂč ils ouvrent la veine, font que le sang en sort plus abondamment que s’ils ne l’avoient point liĂ© ; et il arriveroit tout le contraire s’ils le lioient au-dessous entre la main et l’ouverture, ou bien qu’ils le liassent trĂšs fort au-dessus.

For it is manifest that the tie, moderately straitened, while adequate to hinder the blood already in the arm from returning towards the heart by the veins, cannot on that account prevent new blood from coming forward through the arteries, because these are situated below the veins, and their coverings, from their greater consistency, are more difficult to compress; and also that the blood which comes from the heart tends to pass through them to the hand with greater force than it does to return from the hand to the heart through the veins.

Car il est manifeste que le lien, mĂ©diocrement serrĂ©, pouvant empĂȘcher que le sang qui est dĂ©jĂ  dans le bras ne retourne vers le cƓur par les veines, n’empĂȘche pas pour cela qu’il n’y en vienne toujours de nouveau par les artĂšres, Ă  cause qu’elles sont situĂ©es au-dessous des veines, et que leurs peaux, Ă©tant plus dures, sont moins aisĂ©es Ă  presser ; et aussi que le sang qui vient du cƓur tend avec plus de force Ă  passer par elles vers la main, qu’il ne fait Ă  retourner de lĂ  vers le cƓur par les veines ;

And since the latter current escapes from the arm by the opening made in one of the veins, there must of necessity be certain passages below the ligature, that is, towards the extremities of the arm through which it can come thither from the arteries.

et puisque ce sang sort du bras par l’ouverture qui est en l’une des veines, il doit nĂ©cessairement y avoir quelques passages au-dessous du lien, c’est-Ă -dire vers les extrĂ©mitĂ©s du bras, par oĂč il y puisse venir des artĂšres.

This physician likewise abundantly establishes what he has advanced respecting the motion of the blood, from the existence of certain pellicles, so disposed in various places along the course of the veins, in the manner of small valves, as not to permit the blood to pass from the middle of the body towards the extremities, but only to return from the extremities to the heart; and farther, from experience which shows that all the blood which is in the body may flow out of it in a very short time through a single artery that has been cut, even although this had been closely tied in the immediate neighbourhood of the heart, and cut between the heart and the ligature, so as to prevent the supposition that the blood flowing out of it could come from any other quarter than the heart.

Il prouve aussi fort bien ce qu’il dit du cours du sang, par certaines petites peaux, qui sont tellement disposĂ©es en divers lieux le long des veines, qu’elles ne lui permettent point d’y passer du milieu du corps vers les extrĂ©mitĂ©s, mais seulement de retourner des extrĂ©mitĂ©s vers le cƓur ; et de plus par l’expĂ©rience qui montre que tout celui qui est dans le corps en peut sortir en fort peu de temps par une seule artĂšre lorsqu’elle est coupĂ©e, encore mĂȘme qu’elle fĂ»t Ă©troitement liĂ©e fort proche du cƓur, et coupĂ©e entre lui et le lien, en sorte qu’on n’eĂ»t aucun sujet d’imaginer que le sang qui en sortiroit vĂźnt d’ailleurs.

But there are many other circumstances which evince that what I have alleged is the true cause of the motion of the blood:

Mais il y a plusieurs autres choses qui tĂ©moignent que la vraie cause de ce mouvement du sang est celle que j’ai dite.

thus, in the first place, the difference that is observed between the blood which flows from the veins, and that from the arteries, can only arise from this, that being rarefied; and, as it were, distilled by passing through the heart, it is thinner, and more vivid, and warmer immediately after leaving the heart, in other words, when in the arteries, than it was a short time before passing into either, in other words, when it was in the veins;

Comme, premiĂšrement, la diffĂ©rence qu’on remarque entre celui qui sort des veines et celui qui sort des artĂšres ne peut procĂ©der que de ce qu’étant rarĂ©fiĂ© et comme distillĂ© en passant par le cƓur, il est plus subtil et plus vif et plus chaud incontinent aprĂšs en ĂȘtre sorti, c’est-Ă -dire Ă©tant dans les artĂšres, qu’il n’est un peu devant que d’y entrer, c’est-Ă -dire Ă©tant dans les veines.

and if attention be given, it will be found that this difference is very marked only in the neighbourhood of the heart; and is not so evident in parts more remote from it.

Et si on y prend garde, on trouvera que cette diffĂ©rence ne paroĂźt bien que vers le cƓur, et non point tant aux lieux qui en sont les plus Ă©loignĂ©s.

In the next place, the consistency of the coats of which the arterial vein and the great artery are composed, sufficiently shows that the blood is impelled against them with more force than against the veins.

Puis, la dureté des peaux dont la veine artérieuse et la grande artÚre sont composées montre assez que le sang bat contre elles avec plus de force que contre les veines.

And why should the left cavity of the heart and the great artery be wider and larger than the right cavity and the arterial vein, were it not that the blood of the venous artery, having only been in the lungs after it has passed through the heart, is thinner, and rarefies more readily, and in a higher degree, than the blood which proceeds immediately from the hollow vein?

Et pourquoi la concavitĂ© gauche du cƓur et la grande artĂšre seroient-elles plus amples et plus larges que la concavitĂ© droite et la veine artĂ©rieuse, si ce n’étoit que le sang de l’artĂšre veineuse, n’ayant Ă©tĂ© que dans les poumons depuis qu’il a passĂ© par le cƓur, est plus subtil et se rarĂ©fie plus fort et plus aisĂ©ment que celui qui vient immĂ©diatement de la veine cave ?

And what can physicians conjecture from feeling the pulse unless they know that according as the blood changes its nature it can be rarefied by the warmth of the heart, in a higher or lower degree, and more or less quickly than before?

Et qu’est-ce que les mĂ©decins peuvent deviner en tĂątant le pouls, s’ils ne savent que, selon que le sang change de nature, il peut ĂȘtre rarĂ©fiĂ© par la chaleur du cƓur plus ou moins fort, et plus ou moins vite qu’auparavant ?

And if it be inquired how this heat is communicated to the other members, must it not be admitted that this is effected by means of the blood, which, passing through the heart, is there heated anew, and thence diffused over all the body? Whence it happens, that if the blood be withdrawn from any part, the heat is likewise withdrawn by the same means;

Et si on examine comment cette chaleur se communique aux autres membres, ne faut-il pas avouer que c’est par le moyen du sang, qui, passant par le cƓur, s’y rĂ©chauffe, et se rĂ©pand de lĂ  par tout le corps : d’oĂč vient que si on ĂŽte le sang de quelque partie, on en ĂŽte par mĂȘme moyen la chaleur ;

and although the heart were as hot as glowing iron, it would not be capable of warming the feet and hands as at present, unless it continually sent thither new blood.

et encore que le cƓur fĂ»t aussi ardent qu’un fer embrasĂ©, il ne suffiroit pas pour rĂ©chauffer les pieds et les mains tant qu’il fait, s’il n’y envoyoit continuellement de nouveau sang.

We likewise perceive from this, that the true use of respiration is to bring sufficient fresh air into the lungs, to cause the blood which flows into them from the right ventricle of the heart, where it has been rarefied and, as it were, changed into vapours, to become thick, and to convert it anew into blood, before it flows into the left cavity, without which process it would be unfit for the nourishment of the fire that is there.

Puis aussi on connoĂźt de lĂ  que le vrai usage de la respiration est d’apporter assez d’air frais dans le poumon pour faire que le sang qui y vient de la concavitĂ© droite du cƓur, oĂč il a Ă©tĂ© rarĂ©fiĂ© et comme changĂ© en vapeurs, s’y Ă©paississe et convertisse en sang derechef, avant que de retomber dans la gauche, sans quoi il ne pourroit ĂȘtre propre Ă  servir de nourriture au feu qui y est ;

This receives confirmation from the circumstance, that it is observed of animals destitute of lungs that they have also but one cavity in the heart, and that in children who cannot use them while in the womb, there is a hole through which the blood flows from the hollow vein into the left cavity of the heart, and a tube through which it passes from the arterial vein into the grand artery without passing through the lung.

ce qui se confirme parce qu’on voit que les animaux qui n’ont point de poumons n’ont aussi qu’une seule concavitĂ© dans le cƓur, et que les enfants, qui n’en peuvent user pendant qu’ils sont renfermĂ©s au ventre de leurs mĂšres, ont une ouverture par oĂč il coule du sang de la veine cave en la concavitĂ© gauche du cƓur, et un conduit par oĂč il en vient de la veine artĂ©rieuse en la grande artĂšre, sans passer par le poumon.

In the next place, how could digestion be carried on in the stomach unless the heart communicated heat to it through the arteries, and along with this certain of the more fluid parts of the blood, which assist in the dissolution of the food that has been taken in?

Puis la coction comment se feroit-elle en l’estomac, si le cƓur n’y envoyoit de la chaleur par les artùres, et avec cela quelques unes des plus coulantes parties du sang, qui aident à dissoudre les viandes qu’on y a mises ?

Is not also the operation which converts the juice of food into blood easily comprehended, when it is considered that it is distilled by passing and repassing through the heart perhaps more than one or two hundred times in a day?

Et l’action qui convertit le suc de ces viandes en sang n’est-elle pas aisĂ©e Ă  connoĂźtre, si on considĂšre qu’il se distille, en passant et repassant par le cƓur, peut-ĂȘtre plus de cent ou deux cents fois en chaque jour ?

And what more need be adduced to explain nutrition, and the production of the different humours of the body, beyond saying, that the force with which the blood, in being rarefied, passes from the heart towards the extremities of the arteries, causes certain of its parts to remain in the members at which they arrive, and there occupy the place of some others expelled by them; and that according to the situation, shape, or smallness of the pores with which they meet, some rather than others flow into certain parts, in the same way that some sieves are observed to act, which, by being variously perforated, serve to separate different species of grain?

Et qu’a-t-on besoin d’autre chose pour expliquer la nutrition et la production des diverses humeurs qui sont dans le corps, sinon de dire que la force dont le sang, en se rarĂ©fiant, passe du cƓur vers les extrĂ©mitĂ©s des artĂšres, fait que quelques unes de ses parties s’arrĂȘtent entre celles des membres oĂč elles se trouvent, et y prennent la place de quelques autres qu’elles en chassent, et que, selon la situation ou la figure ou la petitesse des pores qu’elles rencontrent, les unes se vont rendre en certains lieux plutĂŽt que les autres, en mĂȘme façon que chacun peut avoir vu divers cribles, qui, Ă©tant diversement percĂ©s, servent Ă  sĂ©parer divers grains les uns des autres ?

And, in the last place, what above all is here worthy of observation, is the generation of the animal spirits, which are like a very subtle wind, or rather a very pure and vivid flame which, continually ascending in great abundance from the heart to the brain, thence penetrates through the nerves into the muscles, and gives motion to all the members;

Et enfin, ce qu’il y a de plus remarquable en tout ceci, c’est la gĂ©nĂ©ration des esprits animaux, qui sont comme un vent trĂšs subtil, ou plutĂŽt comme une flamme trĂšs pure et trĂšs vive, qui, montant continuellement en grande abondance du cƓur dans le cerveau, se va rendre de lĂ  par les nerfs dans les muscles, et donne le mouvement Ă  tous les membres ;

so that to account for other parts of the blood which, as most agitated and penetrating, are the fittest to compose these spirits, proceeding towards the brain, it is not necessary to suppose any other cause, than simply, that the arteries which carry them thither proceed from the heart in the most direct lines,

sans qu’il faille imaginer d’autre cause qui fasse que les parties du sang qui, Ă©tant les plus agitĂ©es et les plus pĂ©nĂ©trantes, sont les plus propres Ă  composer ces esprits, se vont rendre plutĂŽt vers le cerveau que vers ailleurs, sinon que les artĂšres qui les y portent sont celles qui viennent du cƓur le plus en ligne droite de toutes,

and that, according to the rules of Mechanics, which are the same with those of Nature, when many objects tend at once to the same point where there is not sufficient room for all, (as is the case with the parts of the blood which flow forth from the left cavity of the heart and tend towards the brain,) the weaker and less agitated parts must necessarily be driven aside from that point by the stronger which alone in this way reach it.

et que, selon les rĂšgles des mĂ©caniques, qui sont les mĂȘmes que celles de la nature, lorsque plusieurs choses tendent ensemble Ă  se mouvoir vers un mĂȘme cĂŽtĂ© oĂč il n’y a pas assez de place pour toutes, ainsi que les parties du sang qui sortent de la concavitĂ© gauche du cƓur tendent vers le cerveau, les plus foibles et moins agitĂ©es en doivent ĂȘtre dĂ©tournĂ©es par les plus fortes, qui par ce moyen s’y vont rendre seules.

I had expounded all these matters with sufficient minuteness in the Treatise which I formerly thought of publishing.

J’avois expliquĂ© assez particuliĂšrement toutes ces choses dans le traitĂ© que j’avois eu ci-devant dessein de publier.

And after these, I had shewn what must be the fabric of the nerves and muscles of the human body to give the animal spirits contained in it the power to move the members, as when we see heads shortly after they have been struck off still move and bite the earth, although no longer animated;

Et ensuite j’y avois montrĂ© quelle doit ĂȘtre la fabrique des nerfs et des muscles du corps humain, pour faire que les esprits animaux Ă©tant dedans aient la force de mouvoir ses membres, ainsi qu’on voit que les tĂȘtes, un peu aprĂšs ĂȘtre coupĂ©es, se remuent encore et mordent la terre nonobstant qu’elles ne soient plus animĂ©es ;

what changes must take place in the brain to produce waking, sleep, and dreams;

quels changements se doivent faire dans le cerveau pour causer la veille, et le sommeil, et les songes ;

how light, sounds, odours, tastes, heat, and all the other qualities of external objects impress it with different ideas by means of the senses;

comment la lumiĂšre, les sons, les odeurs, les goĂ»ts, la chaleur, et toutes les autres qualitĂ©s des objets extĂ©rieurs y peuvent imprimer diverses idĂ©es, par l’entremise des sens ;

how hunger, thirst, and the other internal affections can likewise impress upon it divers ideas;

comment la faim, la soif, et les autres passions intérieures y peuvent aussi envoyer les leurs ;

what must be understood by the common sense (sensus communis) in which these ideas are received, by the memory which retains them, by the fantasy which can change them in various ways, and out of them compose new ideas, and which, by the same means, distributing the animal spirits through the muscles, can cause the members of such a body to move in as many different ways, and in a manner as suited, whether to the objects that are presented to its senses or to its internal affections, as can take place in our own case apart from the guidance of the will.

ce qui doit y ĂȘtre pris pour le sens commun oĂč ces idĂ©es sont reçues, pour la mĂ©moire qui les conserve, et pour la fantaisie qui les peut diversement changer et en composer de nouvelles, et, par mĂȘme moyen, distribuant les esprits animaux dans les muscles, faire mouvoir les membres de ce corps en autant de diverses façons, et autant Ă  propos des objets qui se prĂ©sentent Ă  ses sens et des passions intĂ©rieures qui sont en lui, que les nĂŽtres se puissent mouvoir sans que la volontĂ© les conduise :

Nor will this appear at all strange to those who are acquainted with the variety of movements performed by the different automata, or moving machines fabricated by human industry, and that with help of but few pieces compared with the great multitude of bones, muscles, nerves, arteries, veins, and other parts that are found in the body of each animal. Such persons will look upon this body as a machine made by the hands of God, which is incomparably better arranged, and adequate to movements more admirable than is any machine of human invention.

ce qui ne semblera nullement Ă©trange Ă  ceux qui, sachant combien de divers automates, ou machines mouvantes, l’industrie des hommes peut faire, sans y employer que fort peu de piĂšces, Ă  comparaison de la grande multitude des os, des muscles, des nerfs, des artĂšres, des veines, et de toutes les autres parties qui sont dans le corps de chaque animal, considĂšreront ce corps comme une machine, qui, ayant Ă©tĂ© faite des mains de Dieu, est incomparablement mieux ordonnĂ©e et a en soi des mouvements plus admirables qu’aucune de celles qui peuvent ĂȘtre inventĂ©es par les hommes.

And here I specially stayed to show that, were there such machines exactly resembling in organs and outward form an ape or any other irrational animal, we could have no means of knowing that they were in any respect of a different nature from these animals;

Et je m’étois ici particuliĂšrement arrĂȘtĂ© Ă  faire voir que s’il y avoit de telles machines qui eussent les organes et la figure extĂ©rieure d’un singe ou de quelque autre animal sans raison, nous n’aurions aucun moyen pour reconnoĂźtre qu’elles ne seroient pas en tout de mĂȘme nature que ces animaux ;

but if there were machines bearing the image of our bodies, and capable of imitating our actions as far as it is morally possible, there would still remain two most certain tests whereby to know that they were not therefore really men.

au lieu que s’il y en avoit qui eussent la ressemblance de nos corps, et imitassent autant nos actions que moralement il seroit possible, nous aurions toujours deux moyens trùs certains pour reconnoütre qu’elles ne seroient point pour cela de vrais hommes :

Of these the first is that they could never use words or other signs arranged in such a manner as is competent to us in order to declare our thoughts to others:

dont le premier est que jamais elles ne pourroient user de paroles ni d’autres signes en les composant, comme nous faisons pour dĂ©clarer aux autres nos pensĂ©es :

for we may easily conceive a machine to be so constructed that it emits vocables, and even that it emits some correspondent to the action upon it of external objects which cause a change in its organs; for example, if touched in a particular place it may demand what we wish to say to it; if in another it may cry out that it is hurt, and such like;

car on peut bien concevoir qu’une machine soit tellement faite qu’elle profĂšre des paroles, et mĂȘme qu’elle en profĂšre quelques unes Ă  propos des actions corporelles qui causeront quelque changement en ses organes, comme, si on la touche en quelque endroit, qu’elle demande ce qu’on lui veut dire ; si en un autre, qu’elle crie qu’on lui fait mal, et choses semblables ;

but not that it should arrange them variously so as appositely to reply to what is said in its presence, as men of the lowest grade of intellect can do.

mais non pas qu’elle les arrange diversement pour rĂ©pondre au sens de tout ce qui se dira en sa prĂ©sence, ainsi que les hommes les plus hĂ©bĂ©tĂ©s peuvent faire.

The second test is, that although such machines might execute many things with equal or perhaps greater perfection than any of us, they would, without doubt, fail in certain others from which it could be discovered that they did not act from knowledge, but solely from the disposition of their organs:

Et le second est que, bien qu’elles fissent plusieurs choses aussi bien ou peut-ĂȘtre mieux qu’aucun de nous, elles manqueroient infailliblement en quelques autres, par lesquelles on dĂ©couvriroit qu’elles n’agiroient pas par connoissance, mais seulement par la disposition de leurs organes :

for while Reason is an universal instrument that is alike available on every occasion, these organs, on the contrary, need a particular arrangement for each particular action;

car, au lieu que la raison est un instrument universel qui peut servir en toutes sortes de rencontres, ces organes ont besoin de quelque particuliĂšre disposition pour chaque action particuliĂšre ;

whence it must be morally impossible that there should exist in any machine a diversity of organs sufficient to enable it to act in all the occurrences of life, in the way in which our reason enables us to act.

d’oĂč vient qu’il est moralement impossible qu’il y en ait assez de divers en une machine pour la faire agir en toutes les occurrences de la vie de mĂȘme façon que notre raison nous fait agir.

Again, by means of these two tests we may likewise know the difference between men and brutes. For it is highly deserving of remark, that there are no men so dull and stupid, not even idiots, as to be incapable of joining together different words, and thereby constructing a declaration by which to make their thoughts understood;

Or, par ces deux mĂȘmes moyens, on peut aussi connoĂźtre la diffĂ©rence qui est entre les hommes et les bĂȘtes. Car c’est une chose bien remarquable qu’il n’y a point d’hommes si hĂ©bĂ©tĂ©s et si stupides, sans en excepter mĂȘme les insensĂ©s, qu’ils ne soient capables d’arranger ensemble diverses paroles, et d’en composer un discours par lequel ils fassent entendre leurs pensĂ©es ;

and that on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect or happily circumstanced which can do the like.

et qu’au contraire il n’y a point d’autre animal, tant parfait et tant heureusement nĂ© qu’il puisse ĂȘtre, qui fasse le semblable.

Nor does this inability arise from want of organs: for we observe that magpies and parrots can utter words like ourselves, and are yet unable to speak as we do, that is, so as to show that they understand what they say; in place of which men born deaf and dumb, and thus not less, but rather more than the brutes, destitute of the organs which others use in speaking, are in the habit of spontaneously inventing certain signs by which they discover their thoughts to those who, being usually in their company, have leisure to learn their language.

Ce qui n’arrive pas de ce qu’ils ont faute d’organes : car on voit que les pies et les perroquets peuvent profĂ©rer des paroles ainsi que nous, et toutefois ne peuvent parler ainsi que nous, c’est-Ă -dire en tĂ©moignant qu’ils pensent ce qu’ils disent ; au lieu que les hommes qui Ă©tant nĂ©s sourds et muets sont privĂ©s des organes qui servent aux autres pour parler, — autant ou plus que les bĂȘtes, ont coutume d’inventer d’eux-mĂȘmes quelques signes, par lesquels ils se font entendre Ă  ceux qui Ă©tant ordinairement avec eux ont loisir d’apprendre leur langue.

And this proves not only that the brutes have less Reason than man, but that they have none at all:

Et ceci ne tĂ©moigne pas seulement que les bĂȘtes ont moins de raison que les hommes, mais qu’elles n’en ont point du tout :

for we see that very little is required to enable a person to speak; and since a certain inequality of capacity is observable among animals of the same species, as well as among men, and since some are more capable of being instructed than others, it is incredible that the most perfect ape or parrot of its species, should not in this be equal to the most stupid infant of its kind, or at least to one that was crack-brained, unless the soul of brutes were of a nature wholly different from ours.

car on voit qu’il n’en faut que fort peu pour savoir parler ; et d’autant qu’on remarque de l’inĂ©galitĂ© entre les animaux d’une mĂȘme espĂšce, aussi bien qu’entre les hommes, et que les uns sont plus aisĂ©s Ă  dresser que les autres, il n’est pas croyable qu’un singe ou un perroquet qui seroit des plus parfaits de son espĂšce n’égalĂąt en cela un enfant des plus stupides, ou du moins un enfant qui auroit le cerveau troublĂ©, si leur Ăąme n’étoit d’une nature toute diffĂ©rente de la nĂŽtre.

And we ought not to confound speech with the natural movements which indicate the passions, and can be imitated by machines as well as manifested by animals; nor must it be thought with certain of the ancients, that the brutes speak, although we do not understand their language.

Et on ne doit pas confondre les paroles avec les mouvements naturels, qui tĂ©moignent les passions, et peuvent ĂȘtre imitĂ©s par des machines aussi bien que par les animaux ; ni penser, comme quelques anciens, que les bĂȘtes parlent, bien que nous n’entendions pas leur langage.

For if such were the case, since they are endowed with many organs analogous to ours, they could as easily communicate their thoughts to us as to their fellows.

Car s’il Ă©toit vrai, puisqu’elles ont plusieurs organes qui se rapportent aux nĂŽtres, elles pourroient aussi bien se faire entendre Ă  nous qu’à leurs semblables.

It is also very worthy of remark, that, though there are many animals which manifest more industry than we in certain of their actions, the same animals are yet observed to show none at all in many others: so that the circumstance that they do better than we does not prove that they are endowed with mind, for it would thence follow that they possessed greater Reason than any of us, and could surpass us in all things;

C’est aussi une chose fort remarquable que, bien qu’il y ait plusieurs animaux qui tĂ©moignent plus d’industrie que nous en quelques unes de leurs actions, on voit toutefois que les mĂȘmes n’en tĂ©moignent point du tout en beaucoup d’autres : de façon que ce qu’ils font mieux que nous ne prouve pas qu’ils ont de l’esprit, car Ă  ce compte ils en auroient plus qu’aucun de nous et feroient mieux en toute autre chose ;

on the contrary, it rather proves that they are destitute of Reason, and that it is Nature which acts in them according to the disposition of their organs: thus it is seen, that a clock composed only of wheels and weights can number the hours and measure time more exactly than we with all our skill.

mais plutĂŽt qu’ils n’en ont point, et que c’est la nature qui agit en eux selon la disposition de leurs organes : ainsi qu’on voit qu’un horloge, qui n’est composĂ© que de roues et de ressorts, peut compter les heures et mesurer le temps plus justement que nous avec toute notre prudence.

I had after this described the Reasonable Soul, and shewn that it could by no means be educed from the power of matter, as the other things of which I had spoken, but that it must be expressly created; and that it is not sufficient that it be lodged in the human body exactly like a pilot in a ship, unless perhaps to move its members, but that it is necessary for it to be joined and united more closely to the body, in order to have sensations and appetites similar to ours, and thus constitute a real man.

J’avois dĂ©crit aprĂšs cela l’ñme raisonnable, et fait voir qu’elle ne peut aucunement ĂȘtre tirĂ©e de la puissance de la matiĂšre, ainsi que les autres choses dont j’avois parlĂ©, mais qu’elle doit expressĂ©ment ĂȘtre créée ; et comment il ne suffit pas qu’elle soit logĂ©e dans le corps humain, ainsi qu’un pilote en son navire, sinon peut-ĂȘtre pour mouvoir ses membres, mais qu’il est besoin qu’elle soit jointe et unie plus Ă©troitement avec lui, pour avoir outre cela des sentiments et des appĂ©tits semblables aux nĂŽtres, et ainsi composer un vrai homme.

I here entered, in conclusion, upon the subject of the soul at considerable length, because it is of the greatest moment: for after the, error of those who deny the existence of God, an error which I think I have already sufficiently refuted, there is none that is more powerful in leading feeble minds astray from the straight path of virtue than the supposition that the soul of the brutes is of the same nature with our own; and consequently that after this life we have nothing to hope for or fear, more than flies and ants;

Au reste, je me suis ici un peu Ă©tendu sur le sujet de l’ñme, Ă  cause qu’il est des plus importants : car, aprĂšs l’erreur de ceux qui nient Dieu, laquelle je pense avoir ci-dessus assez rĂ©futĂ©e, il n’y en a point qui Ă©loigne plutĂŽt les esprits foibles du droit chemin de la vertu, que d’imaginer que l’ñme des bĂȘtes soit de mĂȘme nature que la nĂŽtre, et que par consĂ©quent nous n’avons rien ni Ă  craindre ni Ă  espĂ©rer aprĂšs cette vie, non plus que les mouches et les fourmis ;

in place of which, when we know how far they differ we much better comprehend the reasons which establish that the soul is of a nature wholly independent of the body, and that consequently it is not liable to die with the latter;

au lieu que lorsqu’on sait combien elles diffĂšrent, on comprend beaucoup mieux les raisons qui prouvent que la nĂŽtre est d’une nature entiĂšrement indĂ©pendante du corps, et par consĂ©quent qu’elle n’est point sujette Ă  mourir avec lui ;

and, finally, because no other causes are observed capable of destroying it, we are naturally led thence to judge that it is immortal.

puis, d’autant qu’on ne voit point d’autres causes qui la dĂ©truisent, on est naturellement portĂ© Ă  juger de lĂ  qu’elle est immortelle.

Part VI

SixiĂšme partie

Three years have now elapsed since I finished the Treatise containing all these matters; and I was beginning to revise it, with the view to put it into the hands of a printer, when I learned that persons to whom I greatly defer, and whose authority over my actions is hardly less influential than is my own Reason over my thoughts, had condemned a certain doctrine in Physics, published a short time previously by another individual,* to which I will not say that I adhered, but only that, previously to their censure, I had observed in it nothing which I could imagine to be prejudicial either to religion or to the state, and nothing therefore which would have prevented me from giving expression to it in writing, if Reason had persuaded me of its truth;

Or il y a maintenant trois ans que j’étois parvenu Ă  la fin du traitĂ© qui contient toutes ces choses, et que je commençois Ă  le revoir afin de le mettre entre les mains d’un imprimeur, lorsque j’appris que des personnes Ă  qui je dĂ©fĂšre, et dont l’autoritĂ© ne peut guĂšre moins sur mes actions que ma propre raison sur mes pensĂ©es, avoient dĂ©sapprouvĂ© une opinion de physique publiĂ©e un peu auparavant par quelque autre, de laquelle je ne veux pas dire que je fusse, mais bien que je n’y avois rien remarquĂ© avant leur censure que je pusse imaginer ĂȘtre prĂ©judiciable ni Ă  la religion ni Ă  l’état, ni par consĂ©quent qui m’eĂ»t empĂȘchĂ© de l’écrire si la raison me l’eĂ»t persuadĂ©e ;

and this led me to fear lest among my own doctrines likewise some one might be found in which I had departed from the truth, notwithstanding the great care I have always taken not to accord belief to new opinions of which I had not the most certain demonstrations, and not to give expression to aught that might tend to the hurt of any one.

et que cela me fit craindre qu’il ne s’en trouvĂąt tout de mĂȘme quelqu’une entre les miennes en laquelle je me fusse mĂ©pris, nonobstant le grand soin que j’ai toujours eu de n’en point recevoir de nouvelles en ma crĂ©ance dont je n’eusse des dĂ©monstrations trĂšs certaines, et de n’en point Ă©crire qui pussent tourner au dĂ©savantage de personne.

This has been sufficient to make me alter my purpose of publishing them;

Ce qui a Ă©tĂ© suffisant pour m’obliger Ă  changer la rĂ©solution que j’avois eue de les publier ;

for although the reasons by which I had been induced to take this resolution were very strong, yet my inclination, which has always been hostile to writing books, enabled me immediately to discover other considerations sufficient to excuse me for not undertaking the task.

car, encore que les raisons pour lesquelles je l’avois prise auparavant fussent trĂšs fortes, mon inclination, qui m’a toujours fait haĂŻr le mĂ©tier de faire des livres, m’en fit incontinent trouver assez d’autres pour m’en excuser.

And these reasons, on one side and the other, are such, that not only is it in some measure my interest here to state them, but that of the public, perhaps, to know them.

Et ces raisons de part et d’autre sont telles, que non seulement j’ai ici quelque intĂ©rĂȘt de les dire, mais peut-ĂȘtre aussi que le public en a de les savoir.

I have never made much account of what has proceeded from my own mind; and so long as I gathered no other advantage from the Method I employ beyond satisfying myself on some difficulties belonging to the speculative sciences, or endeavouring to regulate my actions according to the principles it taught me, I never thought myself bound to publish anything respecting it.

Je n’ai jamais fait beaucoup d’état des choses qui venoient de mon esprit ; et pendant que je n’ai recueilli d’autres fruits de la mĂ©thode dont je me sers, sinon que je me suis satisfait touchant quelques difficultĂ©s qui appartiennent aux sciences spĂ©culatives, ou bien que j’ai tĂąchĂ© de rĂ©gler mes mƓurs par les raisons qu’elle m’enseignoit, je n’ai point cru ĂȘtre obligĂ© d’en rien Ă©crire.

For in what regards manners, every one is so full of his own wisdom, that there might be found as many reformers as heads, if any were allowed to take upon themselves the task of mending them, except those whom God has constituted the supreme rulers of his people, or to whom he has given sufficient grace and zeal to be prophets;

Car, pour ce qui touche les mƓurs, chacun abonde si fort en son sens, qu’il se pourroit trouver autant de rĂ©formateurs que de tĂȘtes, s’il Ă©toit permis Ă  d’autres qu’à ceux que Dieu a Ă©tablis pour souverains sur ses peuples, ou bien auxquels il a donnĂ© assez de grĂące et de zĂšle pour ĂȘtre prophĂštes, d’entreprendre d’y rien changer ;

and although my speculations greatly pleased myself, I believed that others had theirs, which perhaps pleased them still more.

et, bien que mes spĂ©culations me plussent fort, j’ai cru que les autres en avoient aussi qui leur plaisoient peut-ĂȘtre davantage.

But as soon as I had acquired some general notions respecting Physics, and beginning to make trial of them in various particular difficulties, had observed how far they can carry us, and how much they differ from the principles that have been employed up to the present time, I believed that I could not keep them concealed without sinning grievously against the law by which we are bound to promote, as far as in us lies, the general good of mankind.

Mais, sitĂŽt que j’ai eu acquis quelques notions gĂ©nĂ©rales touchant la physique, et que, commençant Ă  les Ă©prouver en diverses difficultĂ©s particuliĂšres, j’ai remarquĂ© jusques oĂč elles peuvent conduire, et combien elles diffĂšrent des principes dont on s’est servi jusques Ă  prĂ©sent, j’ai cru que je ne pouvois les tenir cachĂ©es sans pĂ©cher grandement contre la loi qui nous oblige Ă  procurer autant qu’il est en nous le bien gĂ©nĂ©ral de tous les hommes :

For by them I perceived it to be possible to arrive at knowledge highly useful in life; and in room of the Speculative Philosophy usually taught in the Schools, to discover a Practical, by means of which, knowing the force and action of fire, water, air, the stars, the heavens, and all the other bodies that surround us, as distinctly as we know the various crafts of our artizans, we might also apply them in the same way to all the uses to which they are adapted, and thus render ourselves the lords and possessors of nature.

car elles m’ont fait voir qu’il est possible de parvenir Ă  des connoissances qui soient fort utiles Ă  la vie ; et qu’au lieu de cette philosophie spĂ©culative qu’on enseigne dans les Ă©coles, on en peut trouver une pratique, par laquelle, connoissant la force et les actions du feu, de l’eau, de l’air, des astres, des cieux, et de tous les autres corps qui nous environnent, aussi distinctement que nous connoissons les divers mĂ©tiers de nos artisans, nous les pourrions employer en mĂȘme façon Ă  tous les usages auxquels ils sont propres, et ainsi nous rendre comme maĂźtres et possesseurs de la nature.

And this is a result to be desired, not only in order to the invention of an infinity of arts, by which we might be enabled to enjoy without any trouble the fruits of the earth, and all its comforts, but also and especially for the preservation of health, which is without doubt, of all the blessings of this life, the first and fundamental one;

Ce qui n’est pas seulement Ă  dĂ©sirer pour l’invention d’une infinitĂ© d’artifices, qui feroient qu’on jouiroit sans aucune peine des fruits de la terre et de toutes les commoditĂ©s qui s’y trouvent, mais principalement aussi pour la conservation de la santĂ©, laquelle est sans doute le premier bien et le fondement de tous les autres biens de cette vie ;

for the mind is so intimately dependent upon the condition and relation of the organs of the body, that if any means can ever be found to render men wiser and more ingenious than hitherto, I believe that it is in Medicine they must be sought for.

car mĂȘme l’esprit dĂ©pend si fort du tempĂ©rament et de la disposition des organes du corps, que, s’il est possible de trouver quelque moyen qui rende communĂ©ment les hommes plus sages et plus habiles qu’ils n’ont Ă©tĂ© jusques ici, je crois que c’est dans la mĂ©decine qu’on doit le chercher.

It is true that the science of Medicine, as it now exists, contains few things whose utility is very remarkable: but without any wish to depreciate it, I am confident that there is no one, even among those whose profession it is, who does not admit that all at present known in it is almost nothing in comparison of what remains to be discovered; and that we could free ourselves from an infinity of maladies of body as well as of mind, and perhaps also even from the debility of age, if we had sufficiently ample knowledge of their causes, and of all the remedies provided for us by Nature.

Il est vrai que celle qui est maintenant en usage contient peu de choses dont l’utilitĂ© soit si remarquable : mais, sans que j’aie aucun dessein de la mĂ©priser, je m’assure qu’il n’y a personne, mĂȘme de ceux qui en font profession, qui n’avoue que tout ce qu’on y sait n’est presque rien Ă  comparaison de ce qui reste Ă  y savoir ; et qu’on se pourroit exempter d’une infinitĂ© de maladies tant du corps que de l’esprit, et mĂȘme aussi peut-ĂȘtre de l’affoiblissement de la vieillesse, si on avoit assez de connoissance de leurs causes et de tous les remĂšdes dont la nature nous a pourvus.

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